Intricate Ivory Artefacts in Ancient and Medieval Lanka

Premila Thurairatnam, whose article in The CEYLANKAN May 2024 Issue is entitled ”Ceylon Ivory”

In Ceylon, ivory was used in carving as early as the 2^nd century CE or earlier¹. Descriptions of Lanka in the epic Ramayana refer to ivory-embellished chariots and ivory panels. By the 15^th century, ivory carving had become important enough to result in placing ivory workers fairly high on the social scale, just below the farmers and ivory was the second largest export next to cinnamon. The carving was performed with a high degree of skill using simple tools like saws, chisels and rasps to produce ivory knife handles, combs, bangles, boxes, book covers, compasses and architectural elements, such as ornamentation around door frames. Use of ivory in religious images was unique to Ceylon since being an animal substance, other cultures regarded it as inappropriate or simply too difficult to obtain¹. Even today, it is common practice to place mounted elephant tusks on each side of temple doorways and ivory confiscated from poachers or from elephants that die is donated to temples.

Ceylon Ivory Fig 1. Fan. Kotte 1540-55. Ivory, rubies and gold on wool, 57cm high ….. Staatliches Museum für Völkerkunde, Munich; exh. Museum Rietberg, Zürich⁶.

Casket 1 – Kunsthistorishces Museum, Vienna

Fig 2 (Casket 1). Kotte before 1542. 14.9 x 25 x 16cm. Handle and feet contemporary Indo-Portuguese, the lock-plate probably South German, mid-16th century silver mounts. Kunsthistorishces Museum, Vienna⁷.

A monk could personally own) and scent sprayers. This last item was a masterpiece of ivory that consisted of a hollow cylindrical base and a long neck. A secret method, now lost, was used to turn a bottom piece of such thinness it could be compressed by hand to convey the scent up the neck2.

According to J.W. Bennett, an officer in the British colonial government, “Ceylon ivory is considered the most valuable for all the purposes of the manufacturer, being whiter, of finer grain, and retaining its whiteness much longer, than any other”3.

Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, who worked for the Portuguese in Goa, mentions a Ceylonese ivory cross of fine workmanship brought to Goa in the late 16th century: “My master the Archbishop had a crucifixe of Ivorie of an elle long, presented unto him, by one of the inhabitants of the Isle, and by him so cunningly and workmanly wrought, that in the hayre, beard, and face, it seemed to be alive, and in all other parts so neatly wrought and proportioned in lines, that the like can not be done in Europe”4.

The Dutchmen held a custom of smoking tobacco in long-stemmed clay pipes which were very fragile. Cases were made to protect them and several of these of carved ivory panels over a wood case can be found in present-day European collections5.

Ceylon was the first Asian country to send an ambassador to Europe, when in 1541-42 the Buddhist monk Ramaraksa Pandita, who could speak fluent Portuguese, travelled to Lisbon as the representative of his government6. The Portuguese Queen Catherine (1507-78), consort of Dom Joāo III (r. 1521-57) was an avid collector of oriental curiosities, amongst them ivory objects. Some of these she presented as diplomatic gifts or as presents to members of her family such as her daughter Dona Maria, the wife of Philip II, her nieces, the Infanta Maria of Braganza and Joanna of Austria. In 1561 she received 44 fans from the Far East of which the ones from Ceylon can be distinguished by their long elegant handles encrusted with figures, foliage and animals supporting a fan made of thin, flat flaps of ivory6 (Fig 1).

Ivory caskets made in Kotte were sent as diplomatic gifts to the court of Portugal, marking historical and religious events. A group of exquisite caskets has been examined by eminent curators Amin Jaffer and Melanie Anne Schwabe7 and P.H.D.H. de Silva, director of National Museums, Sri Lanka10. Their decoration ranges from being entirely Sinhalese to a mixture of European and Sinhalese, the former predating the latter. Bhuvaneka Bahu (r. 1521-51), king of Kotte sought Portuguese support to subordinate his neighbouring rivals.

Casket 1 – Kunsthistorishces Museum, Vienna

The earliest caskets (before 1542) depict scenes from Ramayana and traditional Sinhalese religious and mythological motifs (Fig 2). The front right panel depicts Dasaratha accompanied by his son Rama, acknowledging the blessings of the sage Vasitha who prophesied Rama’s birth. The front left panel portrays two heavenly dancers (asparas) and the middle panel a pair of holy geese (hamsa puttuwa)7.

The right end of the casket has a figure riding a heavily armoured elephant and it is thought that he is Bhuvaneka Bahu as he is portrayed with symbols of his position of emperor of Ceylon: distinctive holy headband (chinnapatti-kadhatu), a single rope of pearls (ekavali), sunflower referring to the king’s membership of the royal solar dynasty (suryavamsa) and a frieze of royal lions (raja simha) a link to the first great king of Ceylon, Wijaya who was believed to have descended directly from a lion7 (Fig 3).

Casket 2 – Schatzkammer, Residenz, Munich

The earlier casket in Munich portrays the coronation of the effigy of Dharmapala by Dom Joāo III in Lisbon in 1542-43. An embassy was sent from Ceylon to Lisbon with two effigies; one of the three-year-old Prince Dharmapala (grandson of Bhuvaneka Bahu) and the other of King Bhuvaneka Bahu7 or Ambassador Ramaraksa Pandita10 (Fig 4). The front left panel shows the taking of the oath with the king/ambassador placing the prince’s right hand into the right hand of  Dom Joāo III. The front right panel shows the crowning ceremony where Dom Joāo III  places the multi-tiered crown of Lanka on the prince’s head.

 Casket 3 – Schatzkammer, Residenz, Munich

The third casket represents political events of 1546 when Portuguese forces liberated the fortress of Diu from the Sultan of Gujarat, securing Portuguese dominance over Lanka (Fig 5). The left end portrays Bhuvaneka Bahu seated on a lion throne wearing the crown of Lanka and holding a lotus flower (one of the five emblems of Buddha) – Fig 6.

 Casket 4 – Victoria and Albert Museum, London

The casket in the Victoria and Albert Museum is the first to depict Christian motifs. This was sent to Portugal during the reign of Dharmapala who converted to Christianity thus fulfilling his grandfather’s promise to the Portuguese7.

The sophistication and skill of these craftsmen from the Middle Ages in reproducing The Tree of Jesse – which prophesied that the Saviour would descend from twelve kings of Israel of his own family, from a Book of Hours printed by Thielman Kerver in 1499 is astounding7. Fig 7 shows a copy of the page from the Book of Hours alongside the carved end of the casket.

Sculpture of Virgin and Child – Asian Civilisations Museum, Singapore

The largest ivory Christian sculpture made in Ceylon is of the Virgin standing on a crescent moon holding the Christ child who carries an orb. She may have once carried a rosary of gold or gemstones. She wears jewelry of South Asian origin indicating that the carver added elements considered essential to a deity, regardless of religion. Her drapes fall in precise, even pleats bordered by intricate ruffles along the edges8 (Fig 8).

Casket 5 – Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin

The growing European influence in the East and of Sinhalo-Portuguese art can be seen in the casket in Berlin, reflecting the early understanding of the Christian faith in Ceylon. The front of the casket shows the coat of arms marrying European and Sinhalese motifs (Fig 9). The shield is surmounted by a 16th-century European crowned helmet from which it is separated by triple rows of beading (arimbuwa). On one side of the shield is the Sinhalese lion and on the other is a two-handled lily pot, known in Ceylon as a ‘power vase’. This coat of arms likely belonged to Dharmapala, a vassal of the Portuguese crown and the last and only Christian emperor of Ceylon. In 1580 he bequeathed Kotte to the Portuguese crown since he had no heirs and wanted his kingdom to remain Christian7.

The back of the casket is carved with scenes from the life of Christ. On the left panel, a kneeling Gabriel holds a banner that reads ‘Ave M.’, an abbreviation for Ave Maria or Hail Mary. The second panel depicts the annunciated Virgin in her bedroom, her hands raised in surprise and her dress overflowing into the leftmost panel. The third panel shows the nativity and the last panel the Ascension of the Innocents, the souls of the children massacred by King Herod rising towards heaven accompanied by an angel holding a lily7 (Fig 10).

The left end of the casket shows the attempted martyrdom of John the Evangelist who according to legend was boiled alive by Romans but rose out of the scalding water rejuvenated. The carving shows him naked in a cauldron set on flames amidst spectators some of whom are wearing turbans. The right end shows the Adoration of the Magi where Mary is seated with baby Jesus in her arms and Joseph standing next to her. At her feet kneels one of the three kings whilst the other two are standing7 (Fig 11).

The top panels of the lid are carved with Christian motifs. The left panel shows the emperor Diocletian ordering the martyrdom of St Sebastian, his clothing adorned with a scorpion, a symbol of evil. On the next panel is Christ or God the Father holding an orb in his left hand and blessing with his right. On the concluding panel of the triptych is the attempted martyrdom of St Sebastian who was pierced by arrows. The last panel shows the Pentecost with Mary and the apostles receiving the blessing of the Holy Spirit represented in the form of a dove7 (Fig 12).

Casket 6 – Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

The ornate work and rich embellishment with gems, pearls, gold, silver, brass, tortoiseshell and rock crystal make these caskets jewels of beauty giving joy forever as can be seen in this one in the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston (Fig 13). They’re also of significant iconographic and cultural value.

Cabinet – India Museum

Further Western influence can be seen in this ivory cabinet with turned-ball feet is reminiscent of work-box cabinets, ornamented with embroidered panels fashionable in England in the mid-17th century9 (Fig 14). It is carved with Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden and the snake coiled around the trunk of the forbidden tree of good and evil. Poignantly, there’s an elephant, a tusker at that, in the garden!

Author’s Note: The above group of caskets and artifacts in various museums around the world is a mere snapshot of a larger collection.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Martha Chaiklin,Ivory in early modern Ceylon: A case study in what documents don’t reveal, (2009), International Journal of Asian Studies 6, 1, Cambridge University Press, pp. 37-63.
2. Coomaraswamy, A. K.Medieval Sinhalese Art, (1979), 3rd New York: Pantheon Books, p.187.
3. Bennett, J.W.Ceylon and Its Capabilities 1843, (1998), New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, pp. 259-60.
4. Burnell, Arthur CokeThe Voyage of John Huyghen van Linschoten to the East Indies, (1970), New York: Burt Franklin p.81.
5. Jaffer, Amin.Luxury Goods from India – the Art of the Indian Cabinet Maker, (2002), New York: Harry N. Abrams, pp. 50-51.
6. Marjorie Trusted,Ivory from Ceylon, (April 2011), The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 153, No. 1297, pp.278-279.
7. Jaffer, Amin. and Melanie, Anne Schwabe,A Group of Sixteenth-Century Ivory Caskets from Ceylon, (1999); 149, 445; Art & Architecture Archive.
8. Alan Chong,Sri Lankan Ivories for the Dutch and Portuguese, 5:2 (Summer 2013), Journal of Historians of Netherlandish Art.
9. de B. Codrington,Western Influences in India and Ceylon: A group of Sinhalese Ivories, (November 1931), The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 59, No. 344, pp 239-246.
10. D.H. de Silva, A Catalogue of Antiquities and other Cultural Objects from Sri Lanka (Ceylon) Abroad, (1975), National Museums of Sri Lanka.

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IMAGES 3…. to …. 14

 Fig 3 (Casket 1). Right end of casket, Kotte before 1542. Kunsthistorishces Museum, Vienna⁷.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig 4 (Casket 2). Kotte c.1543. 18 x 30 x 16cm. Mounts of gold filigree set with cabochon rubies and sapphires. Schatzkammer, Residenz, Munich⁷.

Fig 5 (Casket 3). Kotte 1547. 15 x 25 x 14cm. Gold mounts by Munich goldsmith set with diamonds, emeralds, rubies, sapphires and pearls. Schatzkammer, Residenz, Munich⁷.

Fig 6 (Casket 3). Left end of casket, Kotte, c.1547. Residenz, Munich⁷.

 

 

 

 

 

 

              Fig 7 (Casket 4). Right end of casket carved from an image in a Book of Hours. V&A Museum

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig 8. Virgin and Child, late 16^th century. Ivory 32.5cm high. Asian Civilisations Museum, Singapore⁸.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig 9 (Casket 5). Front of the casket, Kotte, 1578-80. 13.5 x 5.5 x 11.5cm. Mounts are silver gilt, probably contemporary. Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin⁷.

Fig 10 (Casket 5). Back of the casket, Kotte, Museum für Indische Kunst, Berlin⁷.

 

 

 

Fig 11 (Casket 5). Left and right ends of casket in Berlin⁷.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig 12 (Casket 5). Lid of the casket in Berlin⁷.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig 13 (Casket 6). Kotte before 1542. 11 x 16.5 x 10.5cm. Mounts of gold filigree set with rubies, turquoise and rock crystal. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston⁷.

     Fig 14 (Cabinet).

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Martha Chaiklin, Ivory in early modern Ceylon: A case study in what documents don’t reveal, (2009), International Journal of Asian Studies 6, 1, Cambridge University Press, pp. 37-63.
2. Coomaraswamy, A. K. Medieval Sinhalese Art, (1979), 3^rd edn. New York: Pantheon Books, p.187.
3. Bennett, J.W. Ceylon and Its Capabilities 1843, (1998), New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, pp. 259-60.
4. Burnell, Arthur Coke ed. The Voyage of John Huyghen van Linschoten to the East Indies, (1970), New York: Burt Franklin p.81.
5. Jaffer, Amin. Luxury Goods from India – the Art of the Indian Cabinet Maker, (2002), New York: Harry N. Abrams, pp. 50-51.
6. Marjorie Trusted, Ivory from Ceylon, (April 2011), The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 153, No. 1297, pp.278-279.
7. Jaffer, Amin. and Melanie, Anne Schwabe, A Group of Sixteenth-Century Ivory Caskets from Ceylon, (1999); 149, 445; Art & Architecture Archive.
8. Alan Chong, Sri Lankan Ivories for the Dutch and Portuguese, 5:2 (Summer 2013), Journal of Historians of Netherlandish Art.
9. K. de B. Codrington, Western Influences in India and Ceylon: A group of Sinhalese Ivories, (November 1931), The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 59, No. 344, pp 239-246.
10.  P. D.H. de Silva, A Catalogue of Antiquities and other Cultural Objects from Sri Lanka (Ceylon) Abroad, (1975), National Museums of Sri Lanka.

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